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| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Just American Wars Eric Patterson, 2019 This book examines the moral choices faced by U.S. political and military leaders in deciding when and how to employ force, from the American Revolution to the present day. Specifically, the book looks at discrete ethical dilemmas in various American conflicts from a just war perspective. For example, was the casus belli of the American Revolution just, and more specifically, was the Continental Congress a legitimate political authority? Was it just for Truman to drop the atomic bomb on Japan? How much of a role did the egos of Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon play in prolonging the Vietnam War? Often there are trade-offs that civilian and military leaders must take into account, such as General Scott's 1847 decision to bombard the city of Veracruz in order to quickly move his troops off the malarial Mexican coast. The book also considers the moral significance and policy practicalities of different motives and courses of action. The case studies provided highlight the nuances and even limits of just war principles, such as just cause, right intention, legitimate authority, last resort, likelihood of success, discrimination, and proportionality, and principles for ending war such as order, justice, and conciliation. This book will be of interest for students of just war theory, ethics, philosophy, American history and military history more generally. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Rethinking Health Care Ethics Stephen Scher, Kasia Kozlowska, 2018-08-02 The goal of this open access book is to develop an approach to clinical health care ethics that is more accessible to, and usable by, health professionals than the now-dominant approaches that focus, for example, on the application of ethical principles. The book elaborates the view that health professionals have the emotional and intellectual resources to discuss and address ethical issues in clinical health care without needing to rely on the expertise of bioethicists. The early chapters review the history of bioethics and explain how academics from outside health care came to dominate the field of health care ethics, both in professional schools and in clinical health care. The middle chapters elaborate a series of concepts, drawn from philosophy and the social sciences, that set the stage for developing a framework that builds upon the individual moral experience of health professionals, that explains the discontinuities between the demands of bioethics and the experience and perceptions of health professionals, and that enables the articulation of a full theory of clinical ethics with clinicians themselves as the foundation. Against that background, the first of three chapters on professional education presents a general framework for teaching clinical ethics; the second discusses how to integrate ethics into formal health care curricula; and the third addresses the opportunities for teaching available in clinical settings. The final chapter, Empowering Clinicians, brings together the various dimensions of the argument and anticipates potential questions about the framework developed in earlier chapters. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: How Good People Make Tough Choices Rev Ed Rushworth M. Kidder, 2009-11-24 This insightful and brilliant analysis of ethics teaches readers valuable skills in evaluating tough choices and arriving at sound conclusions. “A thought-provoking guide to enlightened and progressive personal behavior.” —Jimmy Carter An essential guide to ethical action updated for our challenging times, How Good People Make Tough Choices by Rushworth M. Kidder offers practical tools for dealing with the difficult moral dilemmas we face in our everyday lives. The founder and president of the Institute for Global Ethics, Dr. Kidder provides guidelines for making the important decisions in situations that may not be that clear cut—from most private and personal to the most public and global. Former U.S. senator and NBA legend Bill Bradley calls How Good People Make Tough Choices “a valuable guide to more informed and self-conscious moral judgments.” |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: For-Profit Enterprise in Health Care Institute of Medicine, Committee on Implications of For-Profit Enterprise in Health Care, 1986-01-01 [This book is] the most authoritative assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of recent trends toward the commercialization of health care, says Robert Pear of The New York Times. This major study by the Institute of Medicine examines virtually all aspects of for-profit health care in the United States, including the quality and availability of health care, the cost of medical care, access to financial capital, implications for education and research, and the fiduciary role of the physician. In addition to the report, the book contains 15 papers by experts in the field of for-profit health care covering a broad range of topicsâ€from trends in the growth of major investor-owned hospital companies to the ethical issues in for-profit health care. The report makes a lasting contribution to the health policy literature. â€Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: America's Revolutionary Mind C. Bradley Thompson, 2019-11-05 America's Revolutionary Mind is the first major reinterpretation of the American Revolution since the publication of Bernard Bailyn's The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution and Gordon S. Wood's The Creation of the American Republic. The purpose of this book is twofold: first, to elucidate the logic, principles, and significance of the Declaration of Independence as the embodiment of the American mind; and, second, to shed light on what John Adams once called the real American Revolution; that is, the moral revolution that occurred in the minds of the people in the fifteen years before 1776. The Declaration is used here as an ideological road map by which to chart the intellectual and moral terrain traveled by American Revolutionaries as they searched for new moral principles to deal with the changed political circumstances of the 1760s and early 1770s. This volume identifies and analyzes the modes of reasoning, the patterns of thought, and the new moral and political principles that served American Revolutionaries first in their intellectual battle with Great Britain before 1776 and then in their attempt to create new Revolutionary societies after 1776. The book reconstructs what amounts to a near-unified system of thought—what Thomas Jefferson called an “American mind” or what I call “America’s Revolutionary mind.” This American mind was, I argue, united in its fealty to a common philosophy that was expressed in the Declaration and launched with the words, “We hold these truths to be self-evident.” |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Justice Michael J. Sandel, 2009-09-15 A renowned Harvard professor's brilliant, sweeping, inspiring account of the role of justice in our society--and of the moral dilemmas we face as citizens What are our obligations to others as people in a free society? Should government tax the rich to help the poor? Is the free market fair? Is it sometimes wrong to tell the truth? Is killing sometimes morally required? Is it possible, or desirable, to legislate morality? Do individual rights and the common good conflict? Michael J. Sandel's Justice course is one of the most popular and influential at Harvard. Up to a thousand students pack the campus theater to hear Sandel relate the big questions of political philosophy to the most vexing issues of the day, and this fall, public television will air a series based on the course. Justice offers readers the same exhilarating journey that captivates Harvard students. This book is a searching, lyrical exploration of the meaning of justice, one that invites readers of all political persuasions to consider familiar controversies in fresh and illuminating ways. Affirmative action, same-sex marriage, physician-assisted suicide, abortion, national service, patriotism and dissent, the moral limits of markets—Sandel dramatizes the challenge of thinking through these con?icts, and shows how a surer grasp of philosophy can help us make sense of politics, morality, and our own convictions as well. Justice is lively, thought-provoking, and wise—an essential new addition to the small shelf of books that speak convincingly to the hard questions of our civic life. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Ethical Issues in Journalism and the Media Andrew Belsey, Ruth Chadwick, 2002-09-11 This book examines the ethical concepts which lie at the heart of journalism, including freedom, democracy, truth, objectivity, honesty and privacy. The common concern of the authors is to promote ethical conduct in the practice of journalism, as well as the quality of the information that readers and audience receive from the media. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: What Money Can't Buy Michael J. Sandel, 2012-04-24 In What Money Can't Buy, renowned political philosopher Michael J. Sandel rethinks the role that markets and money should play in our society. Should we pay children to read books or to get good grades? Should we put a price on human life to decide how much pollution to allow? Is it ethical to pay people to test risky new drugs or to donate their organs? What about hiring mercenaries to fight our wars, outsourcing inmates to for-profit prisons, auctioning admission to elite universities, or selling citizenship to immigrants willing to pay? In his New York Times bestseller What Money Can't Buy, Michael J. Sandel takes up one of the biggest ethical questions of our time: Isn't there something wrong with a world in which everything is for sale? If so, how can we prevent market values from reaching into spheres of life where they don't belong? What are the moral limits of markets? Over recent decades, market values have crowded out nonmarket norms in almost every aspect of life. Without quite realizing it, Sandel argues, we have drifted from having a market economy to being a market society. In Justice, an international bestseller, Sandel showed himself to be a master at illuminating, with clarity and verve, the hard moral questions we confront in our everyday lives. Now, in What Money Can't Buy, he provokes a debate that's been missing in our market-driven age: What is the proper role of markets in a democratic society, and how can we protect the moral and civic goods that markets do not honor and money cannot buy? |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Cambridge Handbook of Applied Psychological Ethics Mark M. Leach, Elizabeth Reynolds Welfel, 2018-03-15 The Cambridge Handbook of Applied Psychological Ethics is a valuable resource for psychologists and graduate students hoping to further develop their ethical decision making beyond more introductory ethics texts. The book offers real-world ethical vignettes and considerations. Chapters cover a wide range of practice settings, populations, and topics, and are written by scholars in these settings. Chapters focus on the application of ethics to the ethical dilemmas in which mental health and other psychology professionals sometimes find themselves. Each chapter introduces a setting and gives readers a brief understanding of some of the potential ethical issues at hand, before delving deeper into the multiple ethical issues that must be addressed and the ethical principles and standards involved. No other book on the market captures the breadth of ethical issues found in daily practice and focuses entirely on applied ethics in psychology. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Classic Cases in Medical Ethics Gregory E. Pence, Pence, 1999-07-09 This rich collection provides an in-depth look at major cases that have defined and shaped the field of medical ethics. Popular among teachers and students alike, it contains more detail than most casebooks and enriches each famous (or infamous) case with extensive historical and contextual background. Each case is illuminated by careful discussion of pertinent philosophical theories and legal and ethical issues. Classic Cases in Medical Ethics is also a natural complement to Pence's Classic Works In Medical Ethics. A brand-new chapter 1 provides an overview of ethical theories and moral reasoning, discusses common mistakes in moral reasoning, and gives an historical overview of ethical theories and medical ethics. The focus of Chapter 4, Physician-Assisted Dying, has been changed from Dr. Kevorkian to Oregon's legalization. Chapter 5 on assisted reproduction now goes far beyond baby Louise Brown's in vitro fertilization and discusses up-to-date issues such as egg donation, choice of embryos, and the possibility of human cloning. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Reasoning with Democratic Values 2.0, Volume 1 David E. Harris, Anne-Lise Halvorsen, Paul F. Dain, 2018 The extensively updated and revised edition of Reasoning with Democratic Values 2.0 presents an engaging approach to teaching U.S. history that promotes critical thinking and social responsibility. In Volume 1, students investigate 20 significant historical episodes, arranged chronologically, beginning with the colonial era and ending with Reconstruction. A comprehensive Instructor’s Manual is also available for purchase. In Volume 1, students can grapple with such ethical dilemmas as: Should the Commonwealth of Massachusetts have granted reparation to the enslaved woman, Belinda Royall?Should Thomas Jefferson have freed his slaves?Should Juan Seguín have fought against the United States in the Mexican–American War?Should Robert E. Lee have accepted command of the Union Army? “A powerful approach to learning history. The lively and exciting true stories provide ample background to engage students in discussions of well-framed questions that are perennial and important.” —Diana Hess, dean, University of Wisconsin–Madison “Ethical reasoning is joined with historical reasoning—values with inquiry—in an array of well selected cases. This curriculum belongs in every U.S. history classroom.” —Walter C. Parker, University of Washington “Clearly organized and eminently balanced, these volumes will help students become citizens who can converse across their differences.” —Jonathan Zimmerman, University of Pennsylvania “These volumes will help build a deeper understanding of significant historical concepts and present wonderful opportunities to engage in critical thinking.” —Amy Bloom, J.D., social studies education consultant, Oakland Schools |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas Ursula K. Le Guin, 2017-02-14 “Ursula Le Guin is more than just a writer of adult fantasy and science fiction . . . she is a philosopher; an explorer in the landscapes of the mind.” – Cincinnati Enquirer The recipient of numerous literary prizes, including the National Book Award, the Kafka Award, and the Pushcart Prize, Ursula K. Le Guin is renowned for her spare, elegant prose, rich characterization, and diverse worlds. The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas is a short story originally published in the collection The Wind's Twelve Quarters. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Fascinated by the Human Condition Peter Harding, 2010 |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks Rebecca Skloot, 2010-02-02 #1 NEW YORK TIMES BESTSELLER • “The story of modern medicine and bioethics—and, indeed, race relations—is refracted beautifully, and movingly.”—Entertainment Weekly NOW A MAJOR MOTION PICTURE FROM HBO® STARRING OPRAH WINFREY AND ROSE BYRNE • ONE OF THE “MOST INFLUENTIAL” (CNN), “DEFINING” (LITHUB), AND “BEST” (THE PHILADELPHIA INQUIRER) BOOKS OF THE DECADE • ONE OF ESSENCE’S 50 MOST IMPACTFUL BLACK BOOKS OF THE PAST 50 YEARS • WINNER OF THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE HEARTLAND PRIZE FOR NONFICTION NAMED ONE OF THE BEST BOOKS OF THE YEAR BY The New York Times Book Review • Entertainment Weekly • O: The Oprah Magazine • NPR • Financial Times • New York • Independent (U.K.) • Times (U.K.) • Publishers Weekly • Library Journal • Kirkus Reviews • Booklist • Globe and Mail Her name was Henrietta Lacks, but scientists know her as HeLa. She was a poor Southern tobacco farmer who worked the same land as her slave ancestors, yet her cells—taken without her knowledge—became one of the most important tools in medicine: The first “immortal” human cells grown in culture, which are still alive today, though she has been dead for more than sixty years. HeLa cells were vital for developing the polio vaccine; uncovered secrets of cancer, viruses, and the atom bomb’s effects; helped lead to important advances like in vitro fertilization, cloning, and gene mapping; and have been bought and sold by the billions. Yet Henrietta Lacks remains virtually unknown, buried in an unmarked grave. Henrietta’s family did not learn of her “immortality” until more than twenty years after her death, when scientists investigating HeLa began using her husband and children in research without informed consent. And though the cells had launched a multimillion-dollar industry that sells human biological materials, her family never saw any of the profits. As Rebecca Skloot so brilliantly shows, the story of the Lacks family—past and present—is inextricably connected to the dark history of experimentation on African Americans, the birth of bioethics, and the legal battles over whether we control the stuff we are made of. Over the decade it took to uncover this story, Rebecca became enmeshed in the lives of the Lacks family—especially Henrietta’s daughter Deborah. Deborah was consumed with questions: Had scientists cloned her mother? Had they killed her to harvest her cells? And if her mother was so important to medicine, why couldn’t her children afford health insurance? Intimate in feeling, astonishing in scope, and impossible to put down, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks captures the beauty and drama of scientific discovery, as well as its human consequences. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Plutonium Files Eileen Welsome, 2010-10-20 When the vast wartime factories of the Manhattan Project began producing plutonium in quantities never before seen on earth, scientists working on the top-secret bomb-building program grew apprehensive. Fearful that plutonium might cause a cancer epidemic among workers and desperate to learn more about what it could do to the human body, the Manhattan Project's medical doctors embarked upon an experiment in which eighteen unsuspecting patients in hospital wards throughout the country were secretly injected with the cancer-causing substance. Most of these patients would go to their graves without ever knowing what had been done to them. Now, in The Plutonium Files, Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter Eileen Welsome reveals for the first time the breadth of the extraordinary fifty-year cover-up surrounding the plutonium injections, as well as the deceitful nature of thousands of other experiments conducted on American citizens in the postwar years. Welsome's remarkable investigation spans the 1930s to the 1990s and draws upon hundreds of newly declassified documents and other primary sources to disclose this shadowy chapter in American history. She gives a voice to such innocents as Helen Hutchison, a young woman who entered a prenatal clinic in Nashville for a routine checkup and was instead given a radioactive cocktail to drink; Gordon Shattuck, one of several boys at a state school for the developmentally disabled in Massachusetts who was fed radioactive oatmeal for breakfast; and Maude Jacobs, a Cincinnati woman suffering from cancer and subjected to an experimental radiation treatment designed to help military planners learn how to win a nuclear war. Welsome also tells the stories of the scientists themselves, many of whom learned the ways of secrecy on the Manhattan Project. Among them are Stafford Warren, a grand figure whose bravado masked a cunning intelligence; Joseph Hamilton, who felt he was immune to the dangers of radiation only to suffer later from a fatal leukemia; and physician Louis Hempelmann, one of the most enthusiastic supporters of the plan to inject humans with potentially carcinogenic doses of plutonium. Hidden discussions of fifty years past are reconstructed here, wherein trusted government officials debated the ethical and legal implications of the experiments, demolishing forever the argument that these studies took place in a less enlightened era. Powered by her groundbreaking reportage and singular narrative gifts, Eileen Welsome has created a work of profound humanity as well as major historical significance. From the Hardcover edition. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Bioethics: Legal and Clinical Case Studies Joseph P. DeMarco, Gary E. Jones, 2017-06-28 Bioethics: Legal and Clinical Case Studies is a case-based introduction to ethical issues in health care. Through seventy-eight compelling scenarios, the authors demonstrate the practical importance of ethics, showing how the concerns at issue bear on the lives of patients, health-care providers, and others. Many central topics are covered, including informed consent, medical futility, reproductive ethics, privacy, cultural competence, and clinical trials. Each chapter includes a selection of important legal cases as well as clinical case studies for critical analysis. The case studies are often presented as moral dilemmas and are conducive to rich discussion. A companion website offers a curated collection of relevant legal precedents along with additional case studies and other resources. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Choices Under Fire Michael Bess, 2009-03-12 World War II was the quintessential “good war.” It was not, however, a conflict free of moral ambiguity, painful dilemmas, and unavoidable compromises. Was the bombing of civilian populations in Germany and Japan justified? Were the Nuremberg and Tokyo war crimes trials legally scrupulous? What is the legacy bequeathed to the world by Hiroshima? With wisdom and clarity, Michael Bess brings a fresh eye to these difficult questions and others, arguing eloquently against the binaries of honor and dishonor, pride and shame, and points instead toward a nuanced reckoning with one of the most pivotal conflicts in human history. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Moral Courage Rushworth M. Kidder, 2005 Publisher description: In a book rich with examples, Rushworth Kidder reveals that moral courage is the bridge between talking ethics and doing ethics. Defining it as a readiness to endure danger for the sake of principle, he explains that the courage to act is found at the intersection of three elements: action based on core values, awareness of the risks, and a willingness to endure necessary hardship. By exploring how moral courage spurs us to strive for core values, he demonstrates the benefits of ethical action to the individual and to society -- and the severe consequences that can result from remaining morally dormant. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Love 'Em or Lose 'Em, Sixth Edition Beverly Kaye, Sharon Jordan-Evans, 2021-03-02 This sixth edition of the number one bestselling employee retention book in the world (over 800,000 copies sold) puts a new emphasis on diversity and inclusion but keeps the same appealing format: twenty-six simple strategies from A to Z. Despite booms and busts, technology advances, talent wars, layoffs, and even a global pandemic, people want what they've always wanted. Employees want—and now expect—meaningful work, supportive bosses, regular recognition, and a chance to learn and grow. And managers want their amazing people to stay—for at least a little while longer. For two decades, this Wall Street Journal bestseller—over 800,000 sold—has offered twenty-six simple strategies, from A to Z, that managers can use to address their employees' real concerns and keep them engaged. The authors have gone over every word of the previous edition, revising, updating, and streamlining. This edition includes a timely focus on diversity and inclusion in every chapter. For example, chapter 6 focuses on family. Different cultures view family responsibilities differently, so the authors address how to take that into consideration when a treasured employee asks for extended leave to care for a grandparent. And a new section called “Conversations That Count” offers discussion questions for sparking deeper conversation around the topics in the book. This new edition will ensure that Love 'Em or Lose 'Em will continue to help managers all over the world create a supportive workplace cultureso they can fight burnout and keep the people they can least afford to lose. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Would You Kill the Fat Man? David Edmonds, 2013-10-06 From the bestselling coauthor of Wittgenstein's Poker, a fascinating tour through the history of moral philosophy A runaway train is racing toward five men who are tied to the track. Unless the train is stopped, it will inevitably kill all five men. You are standing on a footbridge looking down on the unfolding disaster. However, a fat man, a stranger, is standing next to you: if you push him off the bridge, he will topple onto the line and, although he will die, his chunky body will stop the train, saving five lives. Would you kill the fat man? The question may seem bizarre. But it's one variation of a puzzle that has baffled moral philosophers for almost half a century and that more recently has come to preoccupy neuroscientists, psychologists, and other thinkers as well. In this book, David Edmonds, coauthor of the bestselling Wittgenstein's Poker, tells the riveting story of why and how philosophers have struggled with this ethical dilemma, sometimes called the trolley problem. In the process, he provides an entertaining and informative tour through the history of moral philosophy. Most people feel it's wrong to kill the fat man. But why? After all, in taking one life you could save five. As Edmonds shows, answering the question is far more complex—and important—than it first appears. In fact, how we answer it tells us a great deal about right and wrong. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Ethics in Computing Joseph Migga Kizza, 2016-05-09 This textbook raises thought-provoking questions regarding our rapidly-evolving computing technologies, highlighting the need for a strong ethical framework in our computer science education. Ethics in Computing offers a concise introduction to this topic, distilled from the more expansive Ethical and Social Issues in the Information Age. Features: introduces the philosophical framework for analyzing computer ethics; describes the impact of computer technology on issues of security, privacy and anonymity; examines intellectual property rights in the context of computing; discusses such issues as the digital divide, employee monitoring in the workplace, and health risks; reviews the history of computer crimes and the threat of cyberbullying; provides coverage of the ethics of AI, virtualization technologies, virtual reality, and the Internet; considers the social, moral and ethical challenges arising from social networks and mobile communication technologies; includes discussion questions and exercises. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Ethics Thomas Williams, 2019 Offers historical and topical chapters on the whole range of medieval ethical thought in Christian, Jewish, and Islamic philosophy. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Master Therapists Thomas M. Skovholt, Len Jennings, 2017-02-07 In this 10th Anniversary text, Thomas M. Skovholt and Len Jennings paint an elaborate portrait of expert or master therapists. The book contains extensive qualitative research from three doctoral dissertations and an additional research study conducted over a seven-year period on the same ten master therapists. This intensive research project on master therapists, those considered the best of the best by their colleagues, is the most extensive research on high-level functioning of mental health professionals ever done. Therapists and counselors can use the insights gained from this book as potential guidelines for use in their own professional development. Furthermore, training programs may adopt it in an effort to develop desirable characteristics in their trainees. Featuring a brand new Preface and Epilogue, this 10th Anniversary Edition of Master Therapists revisits a landmark text in the field of counseling and therapy. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Ethics and World Religions Regina Wentzel Wolfe, Christine E. Gudorf, 1999 Ethics and World Religions presents eighteen original cases that discuss ethical issues of diverse peoples and religions situated around the world. Each case is followed by two commentaries that explore the relevant issues from the perspective of two different religious traditions. Commentaries highlight the religious values, principles, and laws that are relevant, and they also suggest the range of options for resolution that exist within the perspective of that religion. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Andrew Carnegie Speaks to the 1% Andrew Carnegie, 2016-04-14 Before the 99% occupied Wall Street... Before the concept of social justice had impinged on the social conscience... Before the social safety net had even been conceived... By the turn of the 20th Century, the era of the robber barons, Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919) had already accumulated a staggeringly large fortune; he was one of the wealthiest people on the globe. He guaranteed his position as one of the wealthiest men ever when he sold his steel business to create the United States Steel Corporation. Following that sale, he spent his last 18 years, he gave away nearly 90% of his fortune to charities, foundations, and universities. His charitable efforts actually started far earlier. At the age of 33, he wrote a memo to himself, noting ...The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money. In 1881, he gave a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland. In 1889, he spelled out his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society, in an article called The Gospel of Wealth this book. Carnegie writes that the best way of dealing with wealth inequality is for the wealthy to redistribute their surplus means in a responsible and thoughtful manner, arguing that surplus wealth produces the greatest net benefit to society when it is administered carefully by the wealthy. He also argues against extravagance, irresponsible spending, or self-indulgence, instead promoting the administration of capital during one's lifetime toward the cause of reducing the stratification between the rich and poor. Though written more than a century ago, Carnegie's words still ring true today, urging a better, more equitable world through greater social consciousness. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Fred D. Gray, 2013-01-01 In 1932, the U.S. Public Health Service recruited 623 African American men from Macon County, Alabama, for a study of the effects of untreated syphilis in the Negro male. For the next 40 years -- even after the development of penicillin, the cure for syphilis -- these men were denied medical care for this potentially fatal disease. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was exposed in 1972, and in 1975 the government settled a lawsuit but stopped short of admitting wrongdoing. In 1997, President Bill Clinton welcomed five of the Study survivors to the White House and, on behalf of the nation, officially apologized for an experiment he described as wrongful and racist. In this book, the attorney for the men, Fred D. Gray, describes the background of the Study, the investigation and the lawsuit, the events leading up to the Presidential apology, and the ongoing efforts to see that out of this painful and tragic episode of American history comes lasting good. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Ethics Beyond War's End Eric Patterson, 2012-03-02 The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have focused new attention on a perennial problem: how to end wars well. What ethical considerations should guide war’s settlement and its aftermath? In cases of protracted conflicts, recurring war, failed or failing states, or genocide and war crimes, is there a framework for establishing an enduring peace that is pragmatic and moral? Ethics Beyond War’s End provides answers to these questions from the just war tradition. Just war thinking engages the difficult decisions of going to war and how war is fought. But from this point forward just war theory must also take into account what happens after war ends, and the critical issues that follow: establishing an enduring order, employing political forms of justice, and cultivating collective forms of conciliation. Top thinkers in the field—including Michael Walzer, Jean Bethke Elshtain, James Turner Johnson, and Brian Orend—offer powerful contributions to our understanding of the vital issues associated with late- and post conflict in tough, real-world scenarios that range from the US Civil War to contemporary quagmires in Afghanistan, the Middle East, and the Congo. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Ethical Dilemmas and Nursing Practice Anne J. Davis, Mila A. Aroskar, 1991 This text discusses ethical dilemmas in nursing from a philosophical and social viewpoint. This third edition has been revised and updated to include new chapters on death and dying and mental retardation. The information on AIDS, abortion and ethical theory has been expanded. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Encyclopedia of Ethical Failure Department of Defense, 2009-12-31 The Standards of Conduct Office of the Department of Defense General Counsel's Office has assembled an encyclopedia of cases of ethical failure for use as a training tool. These are real examples of Federal employees who have intentionally or unwittingly violated standards of conduct. Some cases are humorous, some sad, and all are real. Some will anger you as a Federal employee and some will anger you as an American taxpayer. Note the multiple jail and probation sentences, fines, employment terminations and other sanctions that were taken as a result of these ethical failures. Violations of many ethical standards involve criminal statutes. This updated (end of 2009) edition is organized by type of violations, including conflicts of interest, misuse of Government equipment, violations of post-employment restrictions, and travel. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Children's Literature: A Very Short Introduction Kimberley Reynolds, 2011-10-06 In this lively discussion Kim Reynolds looks at what children's literature is, why it is interesting, how it contributes to culture, and how it is studied as literature. Providing examples from across history and various types of children's literature, she introduces the key debates, developments, and people involved. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Quest for a Moral Compass Kenan Malik, 2014-05-01 In this remarkable and groundbreaking book, Kenan Malik explores the history of moral thought as it has developed over three millennia, from Homer's Greece to Mao's China, from ancient India to modern America. It tells the stories of the great philosophers, and breathes life into their ideas, while also challenging many of our most cherished moral beliefs. Engaging and provocative, The Quest for a Moral Compass confronts some of humanity's deepest questions. Where do values come from? Is God necessary for moral guidance? Are there absolute moral truths? It also brings morality down to earth, showing how, throughout history, social needs and political desires have shaped moral thinking. It is a history of the world told through the history of moral thought, and a history of moral thought that casts new light on global history. At a time of great social turbulence and moral uncertainty, there will be few histories more important than this. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Handbook of Social Research Ethics Donna M. Mertens, Pauline E. Ginsberg, 2009 Brings together international scholars across the social and behavioural sciences and education to address those ethical issues that arise in the theory and practice of research within the technologically advancing and culturally complex world in which we live. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Wringer Jerry Spinelli, 2009-10-13 Newbery Honor Book * ALA Notable Children's Book Deeply felt. Presents a moral question with great care and sensitivity. —The New York Times A spellbinding story about rites of passage. —Publishers Weekly (starred review) A realistic story with the intensity of a fable. —The Horn Book (starred review) Thought-provoking. —School Library Journal (starred review) In Palmer LaRue's hometown of Waymer, turning ten is the biggest event of a boy's life. But for Palmer, his tenth birthday is not something to look forward to, but something to dread. Then one day, a visitor appears on his windowsill, and Palmer knows that this, more than anything else, is a sign that his time is up. Somehow, he must learn how to stop being afraid and stand up for what he believes in. Wringer is a powerful tour de force from Newbery Medal winner Jerry Spinelli. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Ethics of Organ Transplantation Wayne N. Shelton, John A. Balint, 2001-04-03 Ethics of Organ Transplantation. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Moral Life Louis P. Pojman, Lewis Vaughn, 2007 Featuring new selections chosen by coeditor Lewis Vaughn, the third edition of Louis P. Pojman's The Moral Life: An Introductory Reader in Ethics and Literature brings together an extensive and varied collection of ninety-one classical and contemporary readings on ethical theory and practice. Integrating literature with philosophy in an innovative way, the book uses literary works to enliven and make concrete the ethical theory or applied issues addressed in each chapter. Literary works by Camus, Hawthorne, Hugo, Huxley, Ibsen, Le Guin, Melville, Orwell, Styron, Tolstoy, and many others lead students into such philosophical concepts and issues as relativism; utilitarianism; virtue ethics; the meaning of life; freedom and autonomy; sex, love, and marriage; animal rights; and terrorism. Once introduced, these topics are developed further through readings by philosophers including Plato, Aristotle, Kant, Nozick, Singer, and Sartre. This unique anthology emphasizes the personal dimension of ethics, which is often ignored or minimized in ethics texts. It also incorporates chapter introductions, study questions, suggestions for further reading, and biographical sketches of the writers. The third edition brings the collection up-to-date, adding selections by Jane English, William Frankena, Don Marquis, John Stuart Mill, Mary Midgley, Thomas Nagel, Judith Jarvis Thomson, and J.O. Urmson. It also features a new chapter on euthanasia with essays by Dan W. Brock, J. Gay-Williams, and James Rachels. Ideal for introductory ethics courses, The Moral Life, Third Edition, also provides an engaging gateway into personal and social ethics for general readers. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: The Unfortunate Experiment Sandra Coney, 1988 In 1984 the medical journal Obstetrics and Gynecology published a paper that would initiate an investigation into one of the greatest medical scandals of the late twentieth century. Titled The Invasive Potential of Carcinoma in Situ of the Cervix, it discussed the results of an experiment that had been run at the National Women’s Hospital in Auckland, New Zealand, since 1955. The experiment looked at the natural history of cervical carcinoma in situ (CIS) – in other words, what happens if no treatment is initiated in a condition suspected (when the experiment began) to lead to cervical cancer. The paper divided participants into two groups, one that had negative results after biopsy or treatment, and one smaller group that continued to test positive. This second group had a significant rate of cervical cancer; some of these women were followed for twenty-five years without treatment, and in only 5% did the disease spontaneously resolve. For the other 95%, outcomes ranged from positive but localised results to metastatic disease and death. The authors said these results were in contrast with other, earlier papers about the experiment. After much research, Sandra Coney, one-time editor of a NZ feminist magazine, and Phyllida Bunkle, a women’s studies lecturer, wrote an article about the experiment, exposing the unauthorised research performed by one prominent gynaecologist in support of his belief that CIS was not associated with cervical cancer. Professor Herbert Green, a physician of considerable influence and power throughout New Zealand, persisted in his belief despite increasingly convincing proof of a progressive connection between the two conditions, never sought permission from his patients, or even told them what he was doing. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Utilitarianism - Ed. Heydt John Stuart Mill, 2010-08-06 John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism is a philosophical defense of utilitarianism, a moral theory stating that right actions are those that tend to promote overall happiness. The essay first appeared as a series of articles published in Fraser’s Magazine in 1861; the articles were collected and reprinted as a single book in 1863. Mill discusses utilitarianism in some of his other works, including On Liberty and The Subjection of Women, but Utilitarianism contains his only sustained defence of the theory. In this Broadview Edition, Colin Heydt provides a substantial introduction that will enable readers to understand better the polemical context for Utilitarianism. Heydt shows, for example, how Mill’s moral philosophy grew out of political engagement, rather than exclusively out of a speculative interest in determining the nature of morality. Appendices include precedents to Mill’s work, reactions to Utilitarianism, and related writings by Mill. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Race, Gender, and the History of Early Analytic Philosophy Matt LaVine, 2020-06-15 Although what we now call “analytic philosophy” has been around at least since the turn of the twentieth century, it wasn’t until the latter half of the twentieth century that it became the dominant mode of philosophizing in the Western world. In Race, Gender, and the History of Early Analytic Philosophy, Matt LaVine argues that the changes associated with this shift from early analytic philosophy, a revolutionary movement, to later analytic philosophy, the hegemon, have not been sufficiently recognized. While a significant portion of the analytic philosophy of the late 1900s was apolitical and conservative, LaVine argues that there is much to gain by thinking of early analytic philosophy in relation to liberatory and emancipatory political aims. In particular, there is great potential in bringing together inquiry into critical theories of race and gender with inquiry into analytic philosophy. LaVine supports this idea by discussing the philosophy of language and logic in relation to the Black Lives Matter movement, the objectification of women, and more. Furthermore, LaVine argues there is more precedent for this type of work in the history of early analytic philosophy—in particular, in the work of G.E. Moore, Susan Stebbing, Rudolf Carnap, and Ruth Barcan Marcus—than is traditionally recognized. |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Paradoxes of Political Ethics John M. Parrish, 2007 |
| famous ethical dilemmas in history: Celebrity Morals and the Loss of Religious Authority John Portmann, 2021-03-31 This book examines American popular culture to demonstrate that celebrities have superseded religious figures as moral authorities. As trust in religious institutions has waned over recent decades, the once frivolous entertainment fringe has become the moral center. Young people and voters increasingly take cues from actors and athletes. The book begins by offering a definition of celebrity and showing that the profile of celebrities has changed dramatically, particularly since the 1960s. They can now chart their own careers, manage their own personal lives and weigh in on pressing moral issues in a manner that hasn't always been the case. This can be to the good, it is argued, for some counterintuitive reasons. Very few stars pretend to be moral exemplars, unlike the frequently hypocritical elites they have replaced. Others, however, are seemingly poorly qualified to speak on complex moral issues. In the end, it also turns out that who tells us how to feel about any moral issue counts at least as much as what they tell us. This is a fresh look at the impact of celebrity culture on contemporary morality and religious authority. As such, it will be of great use to academics working in religious studies and ethics, as well as popular culture and media studies. |
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Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History: Morality's Muddy Waters George Cotkin,2011-06-06 In the face of an uncertain and dangerous world …
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History (book)
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History: Morality's Muddy Waters George Cotkin,2011-06-06 In the face of an uncertain and dangerous world …
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History Full PDF
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History: Morality's Muddy Waters George Cotkin,2011-06-06 In the face of an uncertain and dangerous world …
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History - mdghs.com
This post delves into famous ethical dilemmas throughout history, exploring their complexities, the consequences of the decisions made, and the lessons …
Moral dilemmas - Historical Association
Moral dilemmas: history, teaching and the Holocaust Nicolas Kinloch has argued that teaching the Holocaust should be located within a historical …
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History Full PDF
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History: Morality's Muddy Waters George Cotkin,2011-06-06 In the face of an uncertain and dangerous world Americans yearn for a firm moral compass a clear set of ethical guidelines But as history shows by reducing complex situations to simple cases
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History [PDF]
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History Rushworth M. Kidder. Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History: Morality's Muddy Waters George Cotkin,2011-06-06 In the face of an uncertain and dangerous world Americans yearn for a firm moral compass a clear set of ethical guidelines But as history shows by reducing complex situations to simple cases of
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History .pdf / admissions.piedmont
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History WebAug 22, 2022 · The power of the media to influence the fame of a celebrity is further explored by Marc Cheong in ‘Ethical Dilemmas for @Celebrities: Promoting #Intimacy, Facing #Inauthenticity, and Defusing #Invectiveness.’ Cheong analyses the various effects of social media technology on
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famous-ethical-dilemmas-in-history 2 Downloaded from www1.goramblers.org on 2023-08-20 by guest the present—questions about the composition of a moral community and the case for civil disobedience, about the appropriate responses to injustices and inequalities, and about the …
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History Full PDF
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History: Morality's Muddy Waters George Cotkin,2011-06-06 In the face of an uncertain and dangerous world Americans yearn for a firm moral compass a clear set of ethical guidelines But as history shows by reducing complex situations to simple cases
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History Full PDF
Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History Morality's Muddy Waters George Cotkin,2011-06-06 In the face of an uncertain and dangerous world Americans yearn for a firm moral compass a clear set of ethical guidelines But as history shows by reducing complex situations to simple cases of right or wrong we often
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Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History: Famous Ethical Dilemmas In History Offers over 60,000 free eBooks, including many classics that are in the public domain. Open Library: Provides access to over 1 million free eBooks, including classic literature and contemporary works.
Ethical Dilemmas and Family History: A Psychological Approach
Genealogy 2023, 7, 67 2 of 14 general sense, the conflicting moral values for genealogical researchers usually relate to a tension between discovering documented evidence about a family-related ...
The Coca-Cola Company Struggles with Ethical Crises
Ethical Crises . As one of the most valuable brand names worldwide, Coca-Cola has generally excelled as a business over its long history. However, in recent decades the company has had difficulty meeting its financial objectives and has been associated with a number of ethical crises. As a result, some investors have lost faith in the company.
Ethical Failures and History Lessons: The U.S. Public Health …
ethical lessons to be derived. My work has focused on two troubling studies in American medical research history: 1) the United States Public Health Service (PHS) Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro, better known as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) for which then President Bill Clinton
ETHICAL DILEMMAS: ORAL HISTORY WORK WITH
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Timeline of Landmark events in the Evolution of bioethics - USUHS
The most famous work in the corpus is the . ... soldiers and incarcerated persons. The Tuskegee Study, the most known and discussed in bioethics history, was ultimately exposed by a USPHS whistle blower who leaked the story to the AP (Washington Star, then NY Times ) in 1972. ... President’s Commission of the Study of Ethical Problems in ...
Ethical Dilemmas in Pediatrics - Cambridge University Press
Department of Medical History and Ethics, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA ... 0521847443 - Ethical Dilemmas in Pediatrics: Cases and Commentaries Edited by Lorry R. Frankel, Amnon Goldworth, Mary V. Rorty and William A. Silverman Frontmatter More information.
Ethical Dilemmas and Policy Impact - JSTOR
Ethical Dilemmas and Policy Impact Dan Banik Abstract Fieldwork is an essential research tool in the anthropology. However , ethical principles that often provide guidelines for fieldwork may prove inadequate or conflicting when fieldwork is conducted in situations of extreme poverty. Experiencing field reality with these ethical dilemmas is a
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Some ethical dilemmas in - ResearchGate
the famous 249 words that occurred after the film ran out but were available in the transcript, ... it. Ethical dilemmas. in Counselling. Ethical dilemmas A A E F. British Journal of,, ()
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discipline, however, ethical issues within genealogy are starting to become visible more, especially since DNA testing, and therefore many and varied ethical dilemmas will follow, some of which can maybe be alleviated or controlled by people studying accredited courses and/ …
MORAL DILEMMAS FOR MORAL MACHINES - University of …
moral dilemmas|are used in machine learning to benchmark the ‘ethical’ perfor-mance of new algorithms. As a case study, I begin by providing some technical 1So too have attempts to codify principles for ethical AI research, though largely to little e ect. SeeJobin et al.(2019) for a recent survey; see alsoLaCroix and Mohseni(2020) for a ...
AA 30-Year Historical Examination of Ethical Concerns Regarding
in which business-related ethical perspectives have evolved. Our efforts build on an existing line of research that documented significant shifts in ethical perspectives from 1980 to 1991 (see Beltramini et al. 1984; Peterson et al. 1991). Thus, it seems logical to infer that if the 1980s engendered significant changes in the ethical landscape,
Chapter 18 Gangs: Fieldwork Experiences, Ethical Dilemmas
Gangs: Fieldwork Experiences, Ethical Dilemmas, and Emotions in Youth Street Groups Research Carles Feixa 1 Introduction ... In my doctoral thesis on the oral history of youth under Francoism (Feixa, 1990), I ... famous because he was the protagonist in a series of B-movies on his own life. He died of cirrhosis during a stay in prison in 2003. ...
Personalising the dilemma: research ethics in fiction - SAGE Journals
very readable) primer on ethical dilemmas and interesting hypotheticals (Burgess, 2020; Choo, 2021). Safeguarding and sexual harassment How participants are treated, and the issue of safeguarding, particularly of the vulnerable, in research studies, are ethical principles that the researchers in We are all completely beside ourselves ignore. A ...
Police ethics and integrity: Keeping - SAGE Journals
12 Feb 2020 · pressures’. While there is a long history of academic inter-est in police ethics and integrity in the USA, such issues took longer to gain systematic scholarly attention in the UK. In the 1990s, however, policemisconduct increasingly gained academic attention, as exemplified in Kleinig’s (1996) comprehensive text on police ethics. A further ...
Ethical Perspectives Special Issue – The Morality of Fame
22 Aug 2022 · The power of the media to influence the fame of a celebrity is further explored by Marc Cheong in ‘Ethical Dilemmas for @Celebrities: Promoting #Intimacy, Facing #Inauthenticity, and Defusing #Invectiveness.’ Cheong analyses the various effects of social media technology on celebrity culture, focusing on the recent rise
Architectural Ethics - SAGE Journals
profession of architecture; whilst it is related to practice rather than research, ethical dilemmas arise for all of us as individuals, and my hope is that the dilemmas that the architectural profession faces and their ethical analysis will find echoes in the context of research. Architecture intersects with ethics in numerous ways.
Famous Greedy People In History [PDF] - netsec.csuci.edu
Famous Greedy People In History Famous greedy people in history: A look at individuals who amassed significant wealth and power through questionable means, highlighting their impact on society and the ethical considerations surrounding their actions. Article Outline: 1. Introduction: Defining Greed and its Historical Context 2.
Navigating Ethical Dilemmas in the Modern Workplace: A Study …
3. Leadership and ethical behavior: Investigating the role of leadership styles, ethical leadership, and organizational climate in shaping ethical behavior within workplace settings. 4. Ethical dilemmas in the workplace: Analyzing case studies and real-life scenarios to identify common ethical challenges faced by employees
ETHICAL DILEMMAS: ORAL HISTORY WORK WITH
ETHICAL DILEMMAS: ORAL HISTORY WORK WITH PEOPLE WITH LEARNING DIFFICULTIES SHEENA ROLPH This article introduces some of the ethical dilemmas raised by my oral history work with people with learning difficulties. In it I discuss issues that arose in my research even before the interview process could start. Many of
Dilemmas of Educational Ethics: Cases and Commentaries
conversation about ethical questions in educational policy and practice. The reader is invited to consider a series of richly described ethical dilemmas, along with responses written by practitioners, policy makers, philosophers, and social scientists. Collectively, the cases and commentaries are intended
Optimizing Coalition Air Warfare: The Emergence and Ethical Dilemmas …
Emergence and Ethical Dilemmas of Red Card Holder Teams Katja Lindskov Jacobsen University of Copenhagen Rune Saugmann Tampere University Abstract Red card holder (RCH) teams have developed during the last two decades of collaborative air interventions undertaken by NATO or groups of like-minded states under US leadership.
Ethical Dilemmas and Future Implications of COVID-19
ethical dilemmas that emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic. One topic that had often remained in the background in healthcare suddenly took ... rich history of well-developed ethical th eories, as is the case in biomedicine. In medical practice, …
Ghana: emerging ethical dilemmas Conducting anthropological …
Ethical dilemmas can thus arise at each of the different stages of fieldwork, ranging from entering the field and achieving social acceptance to data analysis and the dissemination of findings.
Ethical Values and the Literary Imagination in the Later
of his Institutio Oratoria to lectio (1.8), where he speaks of ethical instruction through poetry. This idea is echoed in the Middle Ages, when the curriculum authors were simply known as "ethici." Nonethe less, despite such continuities in the teaching of literature from an …
Reasoning with Democratic Values 2.0: Ethical Issues in American History
history and take up a sophisticated examination of ethical dilemmas within American history. In the words of Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, “Every thematic investigation which deepens historical awareness is thus really educational” (2000, p. 109). Authors David Harris, Anne-Lise
UNIT 3 ETHICS IN HISTORY OF INDIAN of Ethics Challenges and …
3.7 Ethical Concepts of Hindu Tradition 3.8 Ethics in Buddhism 3.9 Jaina Ethics 3.10 Let us Sum up 3.11 Key Words 3.12 Further Readings and References 3.0 OBJECTIVES • To give the students of philosophy general glimpse of ethics in Indian tradition; • To enable them understand the ethical consciousness of India; and
Developing an Australian Code of Construction Ethics
Construction projects provide many opportunities for ethical dilemmas to arise. Some of those stages have been identified as: 1. Contract documentation; 2. Obtaining tenders / placing contracts; 3. Construction; and ... moral and religious decrees throughout history is impossible, and furthered the debate as to whether ethics determined law or ...
Lesson – Ethics and art - Pearson
and content demonstrate one way of exploring the ethical considerations in all the areas of knowledge (AOK) and optional themes. ... as well as from history and cultures over the ages where celebrated notables were not held to account for their immoral ... in Keats’ famous: Beauty is truth, truth beauty––that is all. Ye know on earth and ...
ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN SOCIAL WORK - uni-lj.si
List of Contributors vii lan); Ethics, Accountability and the Social Professions (2004, Palgrave Macmillan). She has also been the editor of several books: Teaching Practical Ethics for the Social Professions (2003, FESET); Ethical Issues in Youth Work (1999, Routledge). Her most recent book is Ethics in Professional Life: Virtues for Health and Social Care
Is Engineering Ethics Important for Aerospace Engineers?
ethical codes help engineers to solve such ethical dilemmas. Professional codes of ethics are one signs of the modern societies. Lynch and Kline believe that ... For example, one of the most famous ethical codes of the engineering is the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Code of Ethics. Some of the IEEE codes are as ...
THE ETHICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY - Cambridge University Press
of the ethical dilemmas facing archaeology today. Topics discussed include relations with indigenous peoples; the professional standards ... aesthetics, logic and the history of ideas, and has a special interest in the ethics of political and social structures. julie hollowell is Research Associate at the Department of
RESEARCH ETHICS HANDBOOK: PHILOSOPHY, HISTORY AND …
There are the ethical issues of truthfulness; results that may emerge from research may not be known to the client, would keeping the results from the client be for the client’s good? Does this justify actively deceiving clients? 1.3 Ethical approaches There are a number of ethical approaches that determine the way we live, work and do research.
IASSIST Quarterly Methodological and Ethical Dilemmas of …
Ethical Dilemmas of Archiving Qualitative Data by Arja Kuula 1. IASSIST Quarterly 2010 / 2011 13 ... nationally famous methodologists – such as Pertti Alasuutari or Anssi ... understand and study our culture and history. By contrast, in the social
